|
|
|
Romanticismo**** |
|
La Poesia |
|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 |
| 10 | 11 |
| A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | L | M | N |
| O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | Z | X | Y | W |
|
|
|
|
| Oriana Fallaci | Stephen EdwinKing | Giuseppe Ungaretti | James Joyce | Vittorio Alfieri |
| Hannah Arendt | James Matthew Barrie | Charles Baudelaire | Agatha Christie | Giosuè Carducci |
| Italo Calvino | Gabriele D'Annunzio | Walt Disney | Isabel Allende | LarryFlynt (Editore) |
| MilanKundera | Guido Crepax | Schulz | Beppe Severgnini | Forattini |
| Joanne Kathleen Rowling | Oscar Wilde | Dante Alighieri | Alberto Bevilacqua | Giorgio Bocca |
| Baricco | Samuel Beckett | Stefano Benni | Tom Clancy | Giovanni Verga |
| Camilleri | Emily Dickinson | Nathaniel Hawthorne | Giacomo Leopardi | Jean-Jacques Rousseau |
| Ernest Hemingway | Pirandello | FedericoGarcia Lorca | Umberto Eco | FranzKafka |
| Carlo Collodi | IanFleming | Konrad Lorenz | Freud | Dickens |
| Shakespeare | Pirandello | Eduardo de Filippo | Neil Simon | Beckett |
| Rostand | Brecht | Dario Fo | Andrew Lloyd Webber (Musical) |
| Questo articolo è rilasciato sotto i termini della GNU Free Documentation License Esso utilizza materiale tratto da http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categoria:Poeti_greci Cronologia/Autori: http://it.wikipedia.org/Categoria:Poeti_greci=history Categoria:Poeti greciDa Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera.Categoria che raggruppa i poeti greci |
|
Pagine nella categoria "Poeti greci"Questa categoria contiene 60 pagine.
|
| Questo articolo è rilasciato sotto i termini della
GNU Free Documentation License Esso utilizza materiale tratto da http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lista_di_poeti Cronologia/Autori: http://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lista_di_poeti&action=history Lista di poetiDa Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera.
[modifica] Brasiliani
[modifica] Danesi
[modifica] Francesi
[modifica] Greci
[modifica] Inglesi
[modifica] Israeliani
[modifica] Italiani
[modifica] Latini
[modifica] Messicani
[modifica] Norvegesi
[modifica] Olandesi
[modifica] Russi
[modifica] Spagnoli
[modifica] Statunitensi
[modifica] Tedeschi
[modifica] Ungheresi
[modifica] Canadesi
[modifica] Britannici
[modifica] Veneziani
[modifica] Austriaci
[modifica] Polacchi |
| Questo articolo è rilasciato sotto i termini della
GNU Free Documentation License Esso utilizza materiale tratto da http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letteratura_romantica Cronologia/Autori: http://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romanticismo&action=history RomanticismoDa Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera.
(Reindirizzamento da
Letteratura romantica)
Esistono dei
suggerimenti per ampliare e migliorare questa pagina.
Il Romanticismo fu un movimento artistico, culturale e letterario sviluppatosi in Germania al termine del XVIII secolo e poi diffusosi in tutta Europa.
Sera,
Caspar David Friedrich
[modifica]
Romanticismo: definizioni e interpretazioni
Il termine "romanticismo" venne applicato per primo da Friedrich von Schlegel (1772) alla letteratura da lui considerata "moderna" e contrapposta a quella "classica". August Wilhelm von Schlegel scrive (nell'opera corso di letteratura drammatica) che era un termine più che adeguato per definire il movimento che si era venuto a creare verso il 1790, perché alludeva alla lingua romanza, originatasi dalla mescolanza dei dialetti tedeschi con il latino. E proprio la diversità, e la eterogeneità erano rappresentativi, secondo lui dell'era romantica, dove l'uomo non era più integro, unico e sufficiente a sé stesso come nell'antichità classica, quando veniva predicato il concetto latino dell'autarkeia (cfr Orazio). Infatti secondo i filosofi come Schopenhauer che si rifanno in parte a Johann Gottlieb Fichte, l'uomo, essere finito, tende all'infinto, cioè è alla costante ricerca di un bene o di un piacere infinito, mentre nel mondo finito a sua disposizione non trova che risorse limitate. Questo fa sì che l'uomo senta un vuoto, una mancanza, che lo relega in una inevitabile situazione di infelicità. Come dice August Shlegel "...presso i greci, la natura umana bastava a sé stessa, non presentiva alcun vuoto [...] la religione sensuale de' Greci non prometteva che beni esteriori e temporali". Tornando al termine "romanticismo", che, utilizzato in modo sempre più ampio ed esteso, venne applicato, già nell'Ottocento, dapprima ad una nuova tendenza della sensibilità basata sull'immaginazione e in seguito a un orientamento più diffuso del pensiero filosofico, parlando, via via, non solamente più di arte romantica, ma anche di scienza o filosofia romantiche. Gli atteggiamenti interpretativi degli studiosi riguardo al termine romantico sono stati molto vari e ciò crea problemi a chi voglia definire con maggior precisione questo termine. Il Wellek restringe il Romanticismo solamente a quei movimenti letterari europei che nella prima metà dell'Ottocento si rifecero a questo nome. Il Praz collega il romanticismo ad un cambiamento della sensibilità avvenuto nel Settecento e vivo ancora oggi. Filosofi come Schlegel e Nietzsche considerano il romanticismo come uno dei due cardini sul quale ruota continuamente la spiritualità dell'uomo, distinguendo il primo fra classico e romantico, il secondo tra apollineo e dionisiaco. Le opinioni divergono non solo sul termine ma anche sulla omogeneità europea del fenomeno sostenendo una sostanziale omogeneità come Wellek o sulla diversità delle sue manifestazioni nazionali come il Lovejoy. Ancor oggi nel linguaggio comune le differenze sono molteplici, infatti mentre in tedesco romantisch evoca immagini letterarie di paesaggi e di ricordi medievali, in inglese romantic si collega con il sentimento e l'amore. Nel considerare il termine solo per indicare alcuni precisi fenomeni letterari bisogna in ogni caso tener presente che essi si svilupparono in date differenti (tra il 1800 e il 1830) nei diversi paesi europei. Il romanticismo nacque infatti dapprima in Germania(con la fondazione della rivista "Athenaeum", 1798) ed Inghilterra (pubblicazione delle "Lyrical ballads" di Coleridge e di Wordsworth, 1798) poi in Francia (pubblicazione, a Londra ma in francese "De l'Allemagne" di M.me De Steal, 1813) ed infine in Italia (1816) I tratti comuni dei diversi movimenti romantici sono stati comunque molti: l'ideale della libertà creativa e della spontaneità; la concezione di una letteratura e di una poesia come espressione del sentimento; una polemica vivace contro i generi, le regole; una esaltazione della fantasia; uno spiccato interesse per il mito e i simboli; l'esplorazione del sogno e di altre manifestazioni dell'inconscio; la tendenza ad abolire le distinzioni tra poesia e prosa. Il vocabolo "Romanticismo" deriva dal francese "roman" designante un racconto di avventure, in prosa o in versi. Nella seconda metà del '700, in Inghilterra, l'aggettivo "romantic" ebbe una connotazione negativa e fu adoperato per indicare cose fantastiche ed irreali evocanti motivi ed ambienti medievali. Rousseau usò l'aggettivo "romantique" privato di ogni intendimento negativo, per indicare uno stato dì abbandono sognante dell'anima. Anche in Germania il termine "romantisch", indicante il romanzesco ed il patetico della letteratura medioevale, perse, gradatamente, l'accezione negativa, senza però acquisire un preciso significato semantico. Solo nel 1798 Schlegel, nella rivista Athenaeum, definì lo "stato d'animo romantico" e la poesia che ne era emanazione: essa doveva combinare poesia e prosa, critica e genialità, arte e spontaneità, doveva essere sociale, viva, pregna delle istanze contemporanee e l'arbitrio del poeta non doveva subire costrizioni. Nella stessa rivista Novalis e Schleiermacher chiarirono tali concetti, contrapponendo romanticismo e classicismo.
[modifica]
Temi tipici del romanticismoIncubo, Johann Heinrich Füssli, 1781 - Detroit - Institute of Fine Arts Temi caratteristici di quasi tutti i campi toccati dal movimento romantico sono:
[modifica]
Punti chiave del romanticismoIl romanticismo, specie in letteratura e filosofia (ma anche nella pittura), si rifà in linea di massima alla necessità di attingere all'infinito: A causa di ciò sono spesso ricorrenti alcuni essenziali punti cardine come:
[modifica]
Romanticismo in arte
Nel 1819 viene definita romantica quella scuola che mira alla rappresentazione fedele di profonde e toccanti emozioni, mentre nel 1829 l'attributo romantico viene esteso a molti fenomeni collaterali della arti visive, entrando nel gergo delle sarte, delle modiste e persino dei pasticcieri, romantico è tutto ciò che ha un aria di inverosimile, irreale e fantastico, tutto quello che si contrappone all'arte accademica definita forzata, artificiale dogmatica e priva di fantasia. Charles Baudelaire a commento del Salon del 1846 scrisse il saggio Che cos'è il Romanticismo?, in questo definisce romantico chi "conosce gli aspetti della natura e le situazioni degli uomini che gli artisti del passato hanno sdegnato o misconosciuto". Lo scrittore inoltre fa coincidere romanticismo e modernità affermando: "Chi dice romantico dice arte moderna, cioè intimità, spiritualità, colore , aspirazione verso linfinito espresse con tutti i mezzi che le arti offrono". Un dipinto romantico è facilmente riconoscibile perché fa largo uso di panorami naturali sterminati e violenti, definiti sublimi come nel caso del viandante sul mare di nebbia, di Friedrich, dove un uomo è ritratto di spalle (questo rappresenta la parte inconscia e nascosta del suo animo) ed è affacciato su di un mare di nebbia che invade un paesaggio montagnoso. E' importante il fatto che l'uomo viene identificato come viandante, che lo ricollega al tema romantico dell'esule. Questo quadro non è bello nel senso di equilibrato e piacevole, al contrario manca di punti di riferimento e suscita inquietudine, paura. Allo stesso tempo, un altro quadro, paesaggio invernale, presenta altri topoi, come quello dell'inverno e della neve, che rappresenta la vecchiaia, oppure gli alberi spogli che rappresentano la morte. L'uomo nel dipinto si regge ad un bastone : quelle sono le illusioni che l'uomo coltiva per vivere. Così si va delineando un tipo di arte che riflette la filosofia e le tendenze artistiche di quegli anni, dove l'artista era in conflitto con la società borghese ed i suoi valori, che vedevano l'arte come qualcosa di commercialmente non produttivo e quindi inutile. Inoltre, dipinti come l'onda, di Gustave Courbet, riflettono quel senso di vuoto e di mancanza di punti di riferimento dell'uomo romantico. Autori tipici del romanticismo sono anche Goya, Delacroix, Gericault, Turner.
[modifica]
La nuova sensibilitàLa nuova poetica romantica alla fine del Settecento, non va ricercata nelle novità formali, ma nell’invenzione di numerosi temi e motivi che verranno più ampiamente sfruttati tra il 1820 e il 1840. Il principale mutamento nella scelta del soggetto concerne sia l’aspetto letterario che storico. Da una parte ormai si preferiva Shakespeare, Jean Froissart e Ossian agli autori classici, dall'altra è la storia nazionale e non più quella antica a diventare protagonista delle tele. Com'è naturale la riscoperta di Shakespeare avvine in Inghilterra, dove venne promossa la creazione di una Shakespeare Gallery a Boydell, composta di opere commissionate a una trentina di artisti a partire dal 1786, su temi tratti dalle tragedie del drammaturgo. Tra queste il quadro di John Runciman con Re Lear nella tempesta (1767, Edimburgo, National Gallery). In Francia, per iniziativa del conte d'Angiviller, furono commissionate pitture e statue dedicate agli eroi della storia francese, tra queste nel 1781 Robert Ménageot realizzò la tela con La morte di Leonardo, un quadro di forte assonanza con la pittura romantica, anche nei colori e negli effetti teatrali tesi a drammatizzare l'avvenimento. Con la Deposizione di Atala, del 1799, l'allievo di David: Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson inserì le figure in un mondo primitivo, fonte di turbamenti e sentimenti non più controllati dalla ragione. Nel Salon del 1808 Antoine-Jean Gros presenta la tela con Napoleone sul campo di battaglia di Eylau il 9 febbraio 1807, un tela storica di carattere encomiastico, che presenta, nei morti e feriti in primo piano, forti accenti di carattere realistico. Nel 1831 il periodico romantico «L'Artiste» scriverà: "Non abbiamo dubbi: Napoleone sul campo di battaglia di Eylau segna la nascita della scuola romantica".
[modifica]
Romanticismo in letteratura
[modifica]
Il romanticismo letterario tedescoIl movimento romantico europeo ebbe origine nell'opera di alcuni letterati e ideologici tedeschi della fine del Settecento. Si faceva una netta distinzione tra la poesia naturale, "Naturpoesie", quella che esprime subito, con il sentimento, le caratteristiche di una nazione, e la poesia riflessa o d'arte che è quella che non nasce spontanea, ma nasce dalla imitazione dei modelli stranieri. Si sostenne che ogni nazione avesse la sua poesia, diversa per forma e lingua dalle altre, pertanto era assurdo che la poesia tedesca si rifacesse a quella dei greci o dei romani. Essa doveva trovare una poesia nuova e spontanea che fosse conforme alla sua storia e alla sua natura. Le caratteristiche degli scrittori di questo gruppo furono il disprezzo per tutte le forme dell'arte classica, l'idea di una poesia intesa come immediata adesione alla natura, l'ammirazione verso le fonti primitive dell'arte germanica, l'esaltazione di un tipo di eroe appassionato e ribelle ad ogni legge. Per quanto riguarda gli artisti romantici tedeschi, bisogna dire che in Germania si sviluppò tra il 1770 e il 1785 il movimento dello sturm und Drang (lett.tempesta ed assalto) che vantava artisti come Goethe e Schiller, nel 1789 invece nasce ufficialmente il romanticismo, con la pubblicazione del primo numero del giornale Athenaum. Da allora si distinsero due diverse scuole : quella di Jena e quella di Heidelberg. Della prima facevano parte i due fratelli Schlegel, fondatori della sopracitata rivista, e altri artisti come Novalis, Tieck e Schelling; della scuola di Heidelberg (che aveva tendenze campanilistiche) facevano parte autori come Von Chamisso e Brentano.
[modifica]
Il romanticismo letterario ingleseContemporaneamente, in Inghilterra, si manifestò un analogo movimento letterario e poetico di cui i primi esponenti furono Wordsworth e Coleridge. I romantici inglesi crearono opere di grande valore nelle quali, implicitamente, erano presupposte le nuove concezioni letterarie basate sugli ideali di libertà politiche e morali conseguenti alla Rivoluzione Francese. Byron fu assai apprezzato in Italia per il suo Romanticismo morale, come anche Scott per i suoi romanzi di ambientazione medievale. Meno conosciuti nel nostro Paese furono Keats e Shelley. Gli autori romantici inglesi vengono generalmente divisi in due diverse generazioni : una che concerne la fine del 1700, e un'altra che è vissuta nella prima metà del 1800. Della prima fanno parte Wordsworth, legato al concetto di epifania (intesa come riflessione profonda stimolata inaspettatamente da un fatto prosaico e quotidiano), Coleridge, poeta generalmente definito onirico a causa dell'atmosfera suscitata dalle sue opere, nelle quali sembra di essere in un sogno, e Blake, poeta visionario, che vedeva nella natura dei simboli che si qualificavano come chiavi di lettura di una realtà oltre quella fenotipo. Della seconda generazione si possono definire poeti come John Keats, un nostalgico dell'era classica, Byron, il prototipo del poeta ribelle ed esule, e Shelley, che aveva molto caro il tema della libertà (basti pensare al titolo di una sua opera : Prometeo liberato). Esponenti molto importanti del Romanticismo inglese furono i pittori John Constable e William Turner, appartenenti alla corrente naturalista, nonché il già citato William Blake, con la sua particolare pittura onirica.
[modifica]
Il romanticismo letterario franceseIl Romanticismo francese si è distinto tra gli altri per il profondo rinnovamento di temi, forme ed estetica della letteratura. L'iniziatrice dei romantici francesi è stata in parte Madame de Stäel, ma soprattutto autori come Alphonse De Lamartine, che scrisse le "meditazioni" e Victor Hugo che scrisse le "odi". Grande importanza ebbero, per lo stabilirsi delle nuove idee, la Rivoluzione Francese e l'impero napoleonico e non fu mera coincidenza che i testi fondamentali del romanticismo teorico, il "De l'Allemagne" della de Stäel e "la traduzione Del corso di letteratura drammatica " dello Schlegel, siano stati pubblicati quando l'astro Napoleone Bonaparte era ormai al tramonto (1813). I romantici si opposero ai classicisti e tale contrasto fu indice di una profonda crisi della letteratura e dell'arte in genere. Madame de Stäel aveva affermato che l'arte deve educare l'uomo, esprimendone le esigenze e facendolo partecipe della vita sociale. Tale concezione della letteratura come creazione originale e nazionale, popolare e moderna, espressione della società, fu fondamentale e tipica dei romantici francesi. In Francia la fioritura di opere romantiche fu successiva alla formulazione teorica del nuovo indirizzo letterario e si sviluppò tra il 1820 ed il 1840. In tale periodo Victor Hugo espose la teoria del dramma romantico.
[modifica]
Il romanticismo letterario italianoIn Italia, invece, uno stato d'animo vagamente romantico precedette il romanticismo teorico. Nel nostro paese il romanticismo fu accolto come aspirazione alla libertà in ogni sua forma, non solo letteraria, ma anche morale e politica. Il movimento nacque in Lombardia (1816) subito dopo il Congresso di Vienna (1815) come reazione alla Restaurazione e all'accademismo letterario. Il nostro Romanticismo, che ebbe le sue radici nel preromanticismo di fine '700, non fu estraneo all'Illuminismo e, d'altra parte, questo riferimento fu un fattore costante di tutte le scuole romantiche europee. Infatti l'illuminismo fu bruscamente interrotto dalla Rivoluzione Francese, senza aver potuto portare a compimento i suoi ideali. Passata la bufera, un nuovo tipo di uomo emerse per realizzare quelle esperienze lasciate incompiute, quindi romantico non fu solo chi reagiva con nuovi canoni estetici e religiosi alle teorie illuministe, ma anche l'illuminista che, pur mantenendo un atteggiamento polemico verso alcuni valori tradizionali, riesaminava le proprie posizioni. Il Romanticismo italiano si ricollegò al moto di rinnovamento della seconda metà del secolo. Il suo orizzonte spirituale e filosofico fu indubbiamente più ristretto di quello del Romanticismo tedesco, ma ebbe una fisionomia ben precisa di fervore e di ideale patriottico ed una ben definita coscienza dei propri scopi e dei mezzi per perseguirli. Il Romanticismo italiano va quindi considerato come fenomeno nazionale; suo testo fondamentale fu la Lettera semiseria di Grisostomo del Berchet (1816), nella quale si ha la riaffermazione del concetto di letteratura come fattore storico, che deve esprimere le tradizioni cristiane e nazionali, abbandonando l'imitazione degli antichi e la ricerca delle belle forme e che deve essere mezzo di rinnovamento sociale e morale. Tutti i nostri primi romantici subordinarono la pura letteratura alle ragioni educative ed incivilitrici, facendo delle loro opere un'espressione di libertà e di propaganda per l'indipendenza nazionale. Alle origini del Romanticismo italiano ci fu la coscienza risorgimentale, tale esigenza fu accolta dalla rivista Il Conciliatore il cui fine era di scuotere il Paese dal suo torpore mentale. Al Conciliatore collaborò Mazzini. Manzoni stesso, pur non collaborandovi, ne abbracciò le tesi, considerando anch'egli che la letteratura dovesse essere mezzo di incivilimento, espressione nazionale e popolare e schietta nella lingua e nello stile. Del Romanticismo il Manzoni accolse il rifiuto della mitologia pagana, come espressione di una moralità e di una mentalità aliene da quelle cristiane. La poesia, secondo Manzoni, deve avere per oggetto il vero della storia e delle vicende umane, senza contaminazioni tra storia e fantasia. Per tale ragione il Realismo, apparentemente in antitesi con il Romanticismo, ne fu in realtà uno sviluppo. Infatti l'esigenza di realismo sostenuta dal Manzoni fu presente in tutta la migliore letteratura romantica nei propositi di adesione all'attualità dei fatti e nell'esigenza di renderla popolare ed interprete delle aspirazioni nazionali, nonché nella negazione della normativa classicistica. Il vigore poetico del primo Romanticismo si stemperò in una vena malinconica e sentimentale, della quale i maggiori esponenti furono il Prati e l'Aleardi. La spiritualità romantica, già viva nel Foscolo, fu "situazione sentimentale" nel Leopardi, pur dichiaratamente antiromantico, tanto che tali poeti possono essere, a ragione, considerati esponenti del nostro Romanticismo neoclassico.
[modifica]
Romanticismo in musica
Ludwig van Beethoven
Il romanticismo coinvolse in maniera sostanziale e consistente soprattutto la musica classica, trascinato dagli ideali ispiratori della rivoluzione francese che furono accolti con entusiasmo dai compositori di mezz'europa: ciò nonostante, a seguito della disillusione sperimentata con l'instaurazione delle tirannidi in età napoleonica, gli artisti romantici rivendicarono l'evasione dalla realtà. Il più grande esponente della musica romantica, nonché tra i massimi compositori nella storia della musica, fu indubbiamente Ludwig van Beethoven (al quale è riconosciuta, tra le altre, l'abilità di conciliare eccellentemente classicismo e romanticismo), ma sono svariati i rappresentanti della corrente romantica celeberrimi per le loro composizioni, ognuno distintosi per aver apportato una nota di novità al panorama della musica classica: ne sono esempio Hector Berlioz, Georges Bizet, Johannes Brahms, Frédéric Chopin, Felix Mendelssohn, Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Richard Wagner e in Italia Vincenzo Bellini, Gaetano Donizetti, Ruggero Leoncavallo, Niccolò Paganini, Giacomo Puccini, Gioacchino Rossini, Giuseppe Verdi. Con l'avvento del romanticismo i compositori superarono l'apogeo del classicismo avuto con Haydn e Mozart per approdare ad un'espressione concreta e diretta del sentimento. Furono introdotte numerose novità: l'orchestra conobbe un deciso ampiamento, con l'aumento dei fiati e delle percussioni, la nascita del trombone e la comparsa delle chiavi. Nasce la figura del direttore d'orchestra, impegnato a dirigere un numero di strumenti sempre più elevato.
[modifica]
Romanticismo in filosofia
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
La filosofia in età romantica si riflette nel pensiero dei massimi esponenti dell'idealismo, in particolare di quello tedesco, Fichte, Hegel e Schelling. È importante evidenziare che l'idealismo non si identifica come la filosofia del romanticismo, pur risultando a pieno titolo la sintesi meglio riuscita della corrente: non a caso, pur eccipendone i principi cardine, l'idealismo darà adito a pesanti critiche al romanticismo, in particolare Hegel, che ne contestava l'accesa polemica contro la facoltà non solo intellettuali ma anche razionali dell'individuo. La filosofia romantica proponeva infatti uno stravolgimento della filosofia illuminista, il cui massimo esponente, Immanuel Kant, tracciava le fondamenta del sapere umano attribuendo all'intelletto (facoltà del finito) la possibilità di costruire scienza, mentre relegava la ragione all'ingrato compito di rendere conto dei limiti della conoscenza umana e conseguentemente l'impossibilità di fondare la metafisica[4]. Tuttavia, laddove l'idealismo hegeliano, accogliendo le istanze romantiche, intendeva attingere all'assoluto mediante l'uso della ragione (intesa in Hegel quale espressione dello spirito immanente alla realtà), il romanticismo predicava una sostanziale incapacità della ragione nel cogliere la più intima essenza della realtà, e ad essa contrapponeva il sentimento, l'ironia e l'istinto.
[modifica]
Note e riferimenti
[modifica]
Bibliografia
[modifica]
Classica
[modifica]
Critica
[modifica]
Voci correlate
[modifica]
Altri progetti
[modifica]
Collegamenti esterni
Storia della filosofia | Filosofi | Discipline filosofiche | Opere filosofiche
Aiutaci partecipando al
Progetto:Filosofia e/o ampliando uno
stub di filosofia!
|
| Questo articolo è rilasciato sotto i termini della
GNU Free Documentation License Esso utilizza materiale tratto da http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lista_di_poeti Cronologia/Autori: http://it.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lista_di_poeti&action=history Lista di poetiDa Wikipedia, l'enciclopedia libera.
[modifica] Brasiliani
[modifica] Danesi
[modifica] Francesi
[modifica] Greci
[modifica] Inglesi
[modifica] Israeliani
[modifica] Italiani
[modifica] Latini
[modifica] Messicani
[modifica] Norvegesi
[modifica] Olandesi
[modifica] Russi
[modifica] Spagnoli
[modifica] Statunitensi
[modifica] Tedeschi
[modifica] Ungheresi
[modifica] Canadesi
[modifica] Britannici
[modifica] Veneziani
[modifica] Austriaci
[modifica] Polacchi |
| Questo articolo è
rilasciato sotto i termini della
GNU Free Documentation License Esso utilizza materiale tratto da http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_poetry Cronologia http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_poetry&action=history English poetryFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaMany regard William Shakespeare as the greatest English poet. The history of English poetry stretches from the middle of the 7th century to the present day. Over this period, English poets have written some of the most enduring poems in European culture, and the language and its poetry have spread around the globe. Consequently, the term English poetry is unavoidably ambiguous. It can mean poetry written in England, or poetry written in the English language. The earliest surviving poetry from the area currently known as England was likely transmitted orally and then written down in versions that do not now survive; thus, dating the earliest poetry remains difficult and often controversial. The earliest surviving manuscripts date from the 10th century. Poetry written in Latin, Brythonic (a predecessor language of Welsh) and Old Irish survives which may date as early as the 6th century. The earliest surviving poetry written in Anglo-Saxon, the most direct predecessor of modern English, may have been composed as early as the seventh century. With the growth of trade and the British Empire, the English language had been widely used outside England. In the twenty-first century, only a small percentage of the world's native English speakers live in England, and there is also a vast population of non-native speakers of English who are capable of writing poetry in the language. A number of major national poetries, including the American, Australian, New Zealand, Canadian and Indian poetry have emerged and developed. Since 1922, Irish poetry has also been increasingly viewed as a separate area of study. This article focuses on poetry written in English by poets born or spending a significant part of their lives in England. However, given the nature of the subject, this guideline has been applied with common sense, and reference is made to poetry in other languages or poets who are not primarily English where appropriate.
[edit] The earliest English poetry
The first page of Beowulf The earliest known English poem is a hymn on the creation; Bede attributes this to Cædmon (fl. 658–680), who was, according to legend, an illiterate herdsman who produced extemporaneous poetry at a monastery at Whitby.[1] This is generally taken as marking the beginning of Anglo-Saxon poetry. Much of the poetry of the period is difficult to date, or even to arrange chronologically; for example, estimates for the date of the great epic Beowulf range from AD 608 right through to AD 1000, and there has never been anything even approaching a consensus.[2] It is possible to identify certain key moments, however. The Dream of the Rood was written before circa AD 700, when excerpts were carved in runes on the Ruthwell Cross.[3] Some poems on historical events, such as The Battle of Brunanburh (937) and the Battle of Maldon (991), appear to have been composed shortly after the events in question, and can be dated reasonably precisely in consequence. By and large, however, Anglo-Saxon poetry is categorised by the manuscripts in which it survives, rather than its date of composition. The most important manuscripts are the four great poetical codices of the late tenth and early eleventh centuries, known as the Caedmon manuscript, the Vercelli Book, the Exeter Book, and the Beowulf manuscript. While the poetry that has survived is limited in volume, it is wide in breadth. Beowulf is the only heroic epic to have survived in its entirety, but fragments of others such as Waldere and the Finnsburg Fragment show that it was not unique in its time. Other genres include much religious verse, from devotional works to biblical paraphrase; elegies such as The Wanderer, The Seafarer, and The Ruin (often taken to be a description of the ruins of Bath); and numerous proverbs, riddles, and charms. With one notable exception (Rhyming Poem), Anglo-Saxon poetry depends on alliterative verse for its structure and any rhyme included is merely ornamental.
[edit] The Anglo-Norman period and the Later Middle Ages
With the Norman conquest of England, beginning in 1066, the Anglo-Saxon language rapidly diminished as a written literary language. The new aristocracy spoke French, and this became the standard language of courts, parliament, and polite society. As the invaders integrated, their language and literature mingled with that of the natives: the French dialect of the upper classes became Anglo-Norman, and Anglo-Saxon underwent a gradual transition into Middle English. While Anglo-Norman or Latin was preferred for high culture, English literature by no means died out, and a number of important works illustrate the development of the language. Around the turn of the thirteenth century, Layamon wrote his Brut, based on Wace's twelfth century Anglo-Norman epic of the same name; Layamon's language is recognisably Middle English, though his prosody shows a strong Anglo-Saxon influence remaining. Other transitional works were preserved as popular entertainment, including a variety of romances and lyrics. With time, the English language regained prestige, and in 1362 it replaced French and Latin in Parliament and courts of law. It was with the fourteenth century that major works of English literature began once again to appear; these include the so-called Pearl Poet's Pearl, Patience, Cleanness, and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight; Langland's political and religious allegory Piers Plowman; Gower's Confessio Amantis; and, of course, the works of Chaucer, the most highly regarded English poet of the Middle Ages, who was seen by his contemporaries as a successor to the great tradition of Virgil and Dante. The reputation of Chaucer's successors in the 15th century has suffered in comparison with him, though Lydgate and Skelton are widely studied. However, the century really belongs to a group of remarkable Scottish writers. The rise of Scottish poetry began with the writing of The Kingis Quair by James I of Scotland. The main poets of this Scottish group were Robert Henryson, William Dunbar and Gavin Douglas. Henryson and Douglas introduced a note of almost savage satire, which may have owed something to the Gaelic bards, while Douglas' version of Virgil's Aeneid is one of the early monuments of Renaissance literary humanism in English.
[edit] The Renaissance in EnglandThe Renaissance was slow in coming to England, with the generally accepted start date being around 1509. It is also generally accepted that the English Renaissance extended until the Restoration in 1660. However, a number of factors had prepared the way for the introduction of the new learning long before this start date. A number of medieval poets had, as already noted, shown an interest in the ideas of Aristotle and the writings of European Renaissance precursors such as Dante. The introduction of movable-block printing by Caxton in 1474 provided the means for the more rapid dissemination of new or recently rediscovered writers and thinkers. Caxton also printed the works of Chaucer and Gower and these books helped establish the idea of a native poetic tradition that was linked to its European counterparts. In addition, the writings of English humanists like Thomas More and Thomas Elyot helped bring the ideas and attitudes associated with the new learning to an English audience. Three other factors in the establishment of the English Renaissance were the Reformation, Counter Reformation, and the opening of the era of English naval power and overseas exploration and expansion. The establishment of the Church of England in 1535 accelerated the process of questioning the Catholic world-view that had previously dominated intellectual and artistic life. At the same time, long-distance sea voyages helped provide the stimulus and information that underpinned a new understanding of the nature of the universe which resulted in the theories of Nicolaus Copernicus and Johannes Kepler.
[edit] Early Renaissance poetryWith a small number of exceptions, the early years of the 16th century are not particularly notable. The Douglas Aeneid was completed in 1513 and John Skelton wrote poems that were transitional between the late Medieval and Renaissance styles. The new king, Henry VIII, was something of a poet himself. The most significant English poet of this period was Thomas Wyatt, who was among the first poets to write sonnets in English.
[edit] The ElizabethansThe Elizabethan period (1558 to 1603) in poetry is characterised by a number of frequently overlapping developments. The introduction and adaptation of themes, models and verse forms from other European traditions and classical literature, the Elizabethan song tradition, the emergence of a courtly poetry often centred around the figure of the monarch and the growth of a verse-based drama are among the most important of these developments.
[edit] Elizabethan songA wide range of Elizabethan poets wrote songs, including Nicholas Grimald, Thomas Nashe and Robert Southwell. There are also a large number of extant anonymous songs from the period. Perhaps the greatest of all the songwriters was Thomas Campion. Campion is also notable because of his experiments with metres based on counting syllables rather than stresses. These quantitative metres were based on classical models and should be viewed as part of the wider Renaissance revival of Greek and Roman artistic methods. The songs were generally printed either in miscellanies or anthologies such as Richard Tottel's 1557 Songs and Sonnets or in songbooks that included printed music to enable performance. These performances formed an integral part of both public and private entertainment. By the end of the 16th century, a new generation of composers, including John Dowland, William Byrd, Orlando Gibbons, Thomas Weelkes and Thomas Morley were helping to bring the art of Elizabethan song to an extremely high musical level.
[edit] Courtly poetryEdmund Spenser With the consolidation of Elizabeth's power, a genuine court sympathetic to poetry and the arts in general emerged. This encouraged the emergence of a poetry aimed at, and often set in, an idealised version of the courtly world. Among the best known examples of this are Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene, which is effectively an extended hymn of praise to the queen, and Philip Sidney's Arcadia. This courtly trend can also be seen in Spenser's Shepheardes Calender. This poem marks the introduction into an English context of the classical pastoral, a mode of poetry that assumes an aristocratic audience with a certain kind of attitude to the land and peasants. The explorations of love found in the sonnets of William Shakespeare and the poetry of Walter Raleigh and others also implies a courtly audience.
[edit] Elizabethan verse dramaElizabethan verse drama is widely considered to be one of the major achievements of literature in English, and its most famous exponent, William Shakespeare, is revered as the greatest poet in the language. This drama, which served both as courtly masque and popular entertainment, deals with all the major themes of contemporary literature and life. There are plays on European, classical, and religious themes reflecting the importance of humanism and the Reformation. There are also a number of plays dealing with English history that may be read as part of an effort to strengthen the British national myth and as artistic underpinnings for Elizabeth's resistance to the Spanish and other foreign threats. A number of the comic works for the stage also use bucolic themes connected with the pastoral genre. In addition to Shakespeare, other notable dramatists of the period include Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Dekker and Ben Jonson.
[edit] ClassicismGavin Douglas' Aeneid, Thomas Campion's metrical experiments, and Spenser's Shepheardes Calender and plays like Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra are all examples of the influence of classicism on Elizabethan poetry. It remained common for poets of the period to write on themes from classical mythology; Shakespeare's Venus and Adonis and the Christopher Marlowe/George Chapman Hero and Leander are examples of this kind of work. Translations of classical poetry also became more widespread, with the versions of Ovid's Metamorphoses by Arthur Golding (1565–7) and George Sandys (1626), and Chapman's translations of Homer's Iliad (1611) and Odyssey (c.1615), among the outstanding examples.
[edit] Jacobean and Caroline poetryEnglish Renaissance poetry after the Elizabethan poetry can be seen as belonging to one of three strains; the Metaphysical poets, the Cavalier poets and the school of Spenser. However, the boundaries between these three groups are not always clear and an individual poet could write in more than one manner.
[edit] The Metaphysical poetsJohn Donne The early 17th century saw the emergence of this group of poets who wrote in a witty, complicated style. The most famous of the Metaphysicals is probably John Donne. Others include George Herbert, Henry Vaughan, Andrew Marvell and Richard Crashaw. John Milton in his Comus falls into this group. The Metaphysical poets went out of favour in the 18th century but began to be read again in the Victorian era. Donne's reputation was finally fully restored by the approbation of T. S. Eliot in the early 20th century. [edit] The Cavalier poetsThe Cavalier poets wrote in a lighter, more elegant and artificial style than the Metaphysical poets. Leading members of the group include Ben Jonson, Richard Lovelace, Robert Herrick, Edmund Waller, Thomas Carew and John Denham. The Cavalier poets can be seen as the forerunners of the major poets of the Augustan era, who admired them greatly. [edit] The Restoration and 18th centuryIt is perhaps ironic that Paradise Lost, a story of fallen pride, was the first major poem to appear in England after the Restoration. The court of Charles II had, in its years in France, learned a worldliness and sophistication that marked it as distinctively different from the monarchies that preceded the Republic. Even if Charles had wanted to reassert the divine right of kingship, the Protestantism and taste for power of the intervening years would have rendered it impossible.
[edit] SatireIt is hardly surprising that the world of fashion and scepticism that emerged encouraged the art of satire. All the major poets of the period, Samuel Butler, John Dryden, Alexander Pope and Samuel Johnson, and the Irish poet Jonathan Swift, wrote satirical verse. What is perhaps more surprising is that their satire was often written in defence of public order and the established church and government. However, writers such as Pope used their gift for satire to create scathing works responding to their detractors or to criticise what they saw as social atrocities perpetrated by the government. Pope's "The Dunciad" is a satirical slaying of two of his literary adversaries (Lewis Theobald, and Colley Cibber in a later version), expressing the view that British society was falling apart morally, culturally, and intellectually.
[edit] 18th century classicismThe 18th century is sometimes called the Augustan age, and contemporary admiration for the classical world extended to the poetry of the time. Not only did the poets aim for a polished high style in emulation of the Roman ideal, they also translated and imitated Greek and Latin verse. Dryden translated all the known works of Virgil, and Pope produced versions of the two Homeric epics. Horace and Juvenal were also widely translated and imitated, Horace most famously by John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester and Juvenal by Samuel Johnson's Vanity of Human Wishes.479
[edit] Women poets in the 18th centuryAphra Behn A number of women poets of note emerged during the period of the Restoration, including Aphra Behn, Margaret Cavendish, Mary Chudleigh, Anne Finch, Anne Killigrew, and Katherine Philips. Nevertheless, print publication by women poets was still relatively scarce when compared to that of men, though manuscript evidence indicates that many more women poets were practicing than was previously thought. Disapproval of feminine "forwardness," however, kept many out of print in the early part of the period, and even as the century progressed women authors still felt the need to justify their incursions into the public sphere by claiming economic necessity or the pressure of friends. Women writers were increasingly active in all genres throughout the eighteenth century, and by the 1790s women's poetry was flourishing. Notable poets later in the period include Anna Laetitia Barbauld, Joanna Baillie, Susanna Blamire, Felicia Hemans, Mary Leapor, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Hannah More, and Mary Robinson. In the past decades there has been substantial scholarly and critical work done on women poets of the long eighteenth century: first, to reclaim them and make them available in contemporary editions in print or online, and second, to assess them and position them within a literary tradition.
[edit] The late 18th centuryTowards the end of the 18th century, poetry began to move away from the strict Augustan ideals and a new emphasis on sentiment and the feelings of the poet. This trend can perhaps be most clearly seen in the handling of nature, with a move away from poems about formal gardens and landscapes by urban poets and towards poems about nature as lived in. The leading exponents of this new trend include Thomas Gray, William Cowper, George Crabbe, Christopher Smart and Robert Burns as well as the Irish poet Oliver Goldsmith. These poets can be seen as paving the way for the Romantic movement.
[edit] The Romantic movementWilliam Wordsworth The last quarter of the 18th century was a time of social and political turbulence, with revolutions in the United States, France, Ireland and elsewhere. In Great Britain, movement for social change and a more inclusive sharing of power was also growing. This was the backdrop against which the Romantic movement in English poetry emerged. The main poets of this movement were William Blake, William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Lord Byron, and John Keats. The birth of English Romanticism is often dated to the publication in 1798 of Wordsworth and Coleridge's Lyrical Ballads. However, Blake had been publishing since the early 1780s. However, much of the focus on Blake only came about during the last century when Northrap Frye discussed his work in his book "The Anatomy of Criticism." In poetry, the Romantic movement emphasised the creative expression of the individual and the need to find and formulate new forms of expression. The Romantics, with the partial exception of Byron, rejected the poetic ideals of the eighteenth century, and each of them returned to Milton for inspiration, though each drew something different from Milton. They also put a good deal of stress on their own originality. To the Romantics, the moment of creation was the most important in poetic expression and could not be repeated once it passed. Because of this new emphasis, poems that were not complete were nonetheless included in a poet's body of work (such as Coleridge's "Kubla Khan" and "Christabel"). Additionally, the Romantic movement marked a shift in the use of language. Attempting to express the "language of the common man", Wordsworth and his fellow Romantic poets focused on employing poetic language for a wider audience, countering the mimetic, tightly constrained Neo-Classic poems (although it's important to note that the poet wrote first and foremost for his own creative, expression). In Shelley's "Defense of Poetry", he contends that poets are the "creators of language" and that the poet's job is to refresh language for their society. The Romantics were not the only poets of note at this time. In the work of John Clare the late Augustan voice is blended with a peasant's first-hand knowledge to produce arguably some of the finest nature poetry in the English language. Another contemporary poet who does not fit into the Romantic group was Walter Savage Landor. Landor was a classicist whose poetry forms a link between the Augustans and Robert Browning, who much admired it.
[edit] Victorian poetryThe Victorian era was a period of great political, social and economic change. The Empire recovered from the loss of the American colonies and entered a period of rapid expansion. This expansion, combined with increasing industrialisation and mechanisation, led to a prolonged period of economic growth. The Reform Act 1832 was the beginning of a process that would eventually lead to universal suffrage.
[edit] High Victorian poetryElizabeth Barrett Browning The major High Victorian poets were Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Robert Browning, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Matthew Arnold and Gerard Manley Hopkins. Tennyson was, to some degree, the Spenser of the new age and his Idylls of the Kings can be read as a Victorian version of The Faerie Queen, that is as a poem that sets out to provide a mythic foundation to the idea of empire. The Brownings spent much of their time out of England and explored European models and matter in much of their poetry. Robert Browning's great innovation was the dramatic monologue, which he used to its full extent in his long novel in verse, The Ring and the Book. Elizabeth Barrett Browning is perhaps best remembered for Sonnets from the Portuguese but her long poem Aurora Leigh is one of the classics of 19th century feminist literature. Matthew Arnold was much influenced by Wordsworth, though his poem Dover Beach is often considered a precursor of the modernist revolution. Hopkins wrote in relative obscurity and his work was not published until after his death. His unusual style (involving what he called "sprung rhythm" and heavy reliance on rhyme and alliteration) had a considerable influence on many of the poets of the 1940s.
[edit] Pre-Raphaelites, arts and crafts, Aestheticism, and the "Yellow" 1890sDante Gabriel Rossetti: selfportrait The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a mid-19th century arts movement dedicated to the reform of what they considered the sloppy Mannerist painting of the day. Although primarily concerned with the visual arts, two members, the brother and sister Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Christina Rossetti, were also poets of some ability. Their poetry shares many of the concerns of the painters; an interest in Medieval models, an almost obsessive attention to visual detail and an occasional tendency to lapse into whimsy. Dante Rossetti worked with, and had some influence on, the leading Arts and crafts painter and poet William Morris. Morris shared the Pre-Raphaelite interest in the poetry of the European Middle Ages, to the point of producing some illuminated manuscript volumes of his work. Towards the end of the century, English poets began to take an interest in French symbolism and Victorian poetry entered a decadent fin-de-siecle phase. Two groups of poets emerged, the Yellow Book poets who adhered to the tenets of Aestheticism, including Algernon Charles Swinburne, Oscar Wilde and Arthur Symons and the Rhymer's Club group that included Ernest Dowson, Lionel Johnson and W. B. Yeats.
[edit] The 20th century
[edit] The first three decadesThe Victorian era continued into the early years of the 20th century and two figures emerged as the leading representative of the poetry of the old era to act as a bridge into the new. These were Yeats and Thomas Hardy. Yeats, although not a modernist, was to learn a lot from the new poetic movements that sprang up around him and adapted his writing to the new circumstances. Hardy was, in terms of technique at least, a more traditional figure and was to be a reference point for various anti-modernist reactions, especially from the 1950s onwards.
[edit] The Georgian poets and World War IThe Georgian poets were the first major grouping of the post-Victorian era. Their work appeared in a series of five anthologies called Georgian Poetry which were published by Harold Monro and edited by Edward Marsh. The poets featured included Edmund Blunden, Rupert Brooke, Robert Graves, D. H. Lawrence, Walter de la Mare and Siegfried Sassoon. Their poetry represented something of a reaction to the decadence of the 1890s and tended towards the sentimental. Brooke and Sassoon were to go on to win reputations as war poets and Lawrence quickly distanced himself from the group and was associated with the modernist movement. Other notable poets who wrote about the war include Isaac Rosenberg, Edward Thomas, Wilfred Owen, May Cannan and, from the home front, Hardy and Rudyard Kipling. Although many of these poets wrote socially-aware criticism of the war, most remained technically conservative and traditionalist.
[edit] ModernismThe early decades of the 20th century saw the United States begin to overtake the United Kingdom as the major economic power. In the world of poetry, this period also saw American writers at the forefront of avant-garde practices. Among the foremost of these poets were T.S. Eliot, H.D. and Ezra Pound, each of whom spent an important part of their writing lives in England. Pound's involvement with the Imagists marked the beginning of a revolution in the way poetry was written. English poets involved with this group included D. H. Lawrence, Richard Aldington, T. E. Hulme, F. S. Flint, E. E. Cummings, Ford Madox Ford, Allen Upward and John Cournos. Eliot, particularly after the publication of The Waste Land, became a major figure and influence on other English poets. In addition to these poets, other English modernists began to emerge. These included the London-Welsh poet and painter David Jones, whose first book, In Parenthesis, was one of the very few experimental poems to come out of World War I, the Scot Hugh MacDiarmid, Mina Loy and Basil Bunting.
[edit] The ThirtiesThe poets who began to emerge in the 1930s had two things in common; they had all been born too late to have any real experience of the pre-World War I world and they grew up in a period of social, economic and political turmoil. Perhaps as a consequence of these facts, themes of community, social (in)justice and war seem to dominate the poetry of the decade. The poetic landscape of the decade was dominated by four poets; W. H. Auden, Stephen Spender, Cecil Day-Lewis and Louis MacNeice, although the last of these belongs at least as much to the history of Irish poetry. These poets were all, in their early days at least, politically active on the Left. Although they admired Eliot, they also represented a move away from the technical innovations of their modernist predecessors. A number of other, less enduring, poets also worked in the same vein. One of these was Michael Roberts, whose New Country anthology both introduced the group to a wider audience and gave them their name. The 1930s also saw the emergence of a home-grown English surrealist poetry whose main exponents were David Gascoyne, Hugh Sykes Davies, George Barker, and Philip O'Connor. These poets turned to French models rather than either the New Country poets or English-language modernism, and their work was to prove of importance to later English experimental poets as it broadened the scope of the English avant-garde tradition. John Betjeman and Stevie Smith, who were two of the most significant poets of this period, stood outside all schools and groups. Betjeman was a quietly ironic poet of Middle England with a fine command of a wide range of verse techniques. Smith was an entirely unclassifiable one-off voice.
[edit] The FortiesThe 1940s opened with the United Kingdom at war and a new generation of war poets emerged in response. These included Keith Douglas, Alun Lewis, Henry Reed and F. T. Prince. As with the poets of the First World War, the work of these writers can be seen as something of an interlude in the history of 20th century poetry. Technically, many of these war poets owed something to the 1930s poets, but their work grew out of the particular circumstances in which they found themselves living and fighting. The main movement in post-war 1940s poetry was the New Romantic group that included Dylan Thomas, George Barker, W. S. Graham, Kathleen Raine, Henry Treece and J. F. Hendry. These writers saw themselves as in revolt against the classicism of the New Country poets. They turned to such models as Gerard Manley Hopkins, Arthur Rimbaud and Hart Crane and the word play of James Joyce. Thomas, in particular, helped Anglo-Welsh poetry to emerge as a recognisable force. Other significant poets to emerge in the 1940s include Lawrence Durrell, Bernard Spencer, Roy Fuller, Norman Nicholson, Vernon Watkins, R. S. Thomas and Norman McCaig. These last four poets represent a trend towards regionalism and poets writing about their native areas; Watkins and Thomas in Wales, Nicholson in Cumberland and MacCaig in Scotland.
[edit] The FiftiesThe 1950s were dominated by three groups of poets, The Movement, The Group and a number of poets that gathered around the label Extremist Art. The Movement poets as a group came to public notice in Robert Conquest's 1955 anthology New Lines. The core of the group consisted of Philip Larkin, Elizabeth Jennings, D. J. Enright, Kingsley Amis, Thom Gunn and Donald Davie. They were identified with a hostility to modernism and internationalism, and looked to Hardy as a model. However, both Davie and Gunn later moved away from this position. As befits their name, the Group were much more formally a group of poets, meeting for weekly discussions under the chairmanship of Philip Hobsbaum and Edward Lucie-Smith. Other Group poets included Martin Bell, Peter Porter, Peter Redgrove, George MacBeth and David Wevill. Hobsbaum spent some time teaching in Belfast, where he was a formative influence on the emerging Northern Ireland poets including Seamus Heaney. The term Extremist Art was first used by the poet A. Alvarez to describe the work of the American poet Sylvia Plath. Other poets associated with this group included Plath's one-time husband Ted Hughes, Francis Berry and Jon Silkin. These poets are sometimes compared with the Expressionist German school.hi its rijo the new ris poet of india A number of young poets working in what might be termed a modernist vein also started publishing during this decade. These included Charles Tomlinson, Gael Turnbull, Roy Fisher and Bob Cobbing. These poets can now be seen as forerunners of some of the major developments during the following two decades.
[edit] The 1960s and 1970sIn the early part of the 1960s, the centre of gravity of mainstream poetry moved to Ireland, with the emergence of Seamus Heaney, Tom Paulin, Paul Muldoon and others. In England, the most cohesive groupings can, in retrospect, be seen to cluster around what might loosely be called the modernist tradition and draw on American as well as indigenous models. The British Poetry Revival was a wide-reaching collection of groupings and subgroupings that embraces performance, sound and concrete poetry as well as the legacy of Pound, Jones, MacDiarmid, Loy and Bunting, the Objectivist poets, the Beats and the Black Mountain poets, among others. Leading poets associated with this movement include J. H. Prynne, Eric Mottram, Tom Raworth, Denise Riley and Lee Harwood. The Mersey Beat poets were Adrian Henri, Brian Patten and Roger McGough. Their work was a self-conscious attempt at creating an English equivalent to the Beats. Many of their poems were written in protest against the established social order and, particularly, the threat of nuclear war. Although not actually a Mersey Beat poet, Adrian Mitchell is often associated with the group in critical discussion. Contemporary poet Steve Turner has also been compared with them.
[edit] English poetry nowThe last three decades of the 20th century saw a number of short-lived poetic groupings such as the Martians. There was a growth in interest in women's writing and in poetry from England's ethnic groupings, especially the West Indian community. Poets who emerged include Carol Ann Duffy, Andrew Motion, Craig Raine, Wendy Cope, James Fenton, Blake Morrison, Liz Lochhead, Linton Kwesi Johnson and Benjamin Zephaniah. There was also a growth in performance poetry fuelled by the Poetry Slam movement. A new generation of innovative poets has also sprung up in the wake of the Revival grouping. Further activity focussed around poets in Bloodaxe Books The New Poetry including Simon Armitage, Kathleen Jamie, Glyn Maxwell, Selima Hill, Maggie Hannan, and Michael Hofmann. The New Generation movement flowered in the 1990s and early twenty first century producing poets such as Don Paterson, Julia Copus, John Stammers, Jacob Polley, David Morley and Alice Oswald.
[edit] Notes
[edit] References
Online
[edit] See also
[edit] External links
|